Norse Names -Info

Old Norse Names
In general, parents named their children after a deceased relative or hero. In some way the child was believed to inherit with the name the gifts or personality of their namesake: this belief almost seems to have been one of reincarnation of the named relative in the new child once the name was bestowed. It was very common to give children the names of honored relatives, for the Northmen believed that children would partake of the virtues of the ones whose names they bore. Relatives recently dead, in particular, were thus remembered by their kindred, a custom resulting from a half belief that the spirit of the beloved dead lived again in the little child. Present day Scandinavians still "call up" deceased members of their families in this manner. (Social Scandinavia p. 61).The religious basis of the practice was that a departed ancestor is reborn and again rejoins the living members of the family if his/her name is given to the new-born child. Only the departed ancestor was, therefore, renamed so long as the belief was a living force.... Originally the naming of the first two sons must have been very varied; it could have been after the father only in a small proportion of cases, or after an uncle in perhaps a somewhat larger proportion of cases; or again the child might be named after some other relative of the parents, as a cousin. Undoubtedly, however, it was a grandparent in a relatively large number of cases. If one or more of the grandparents were dead the old belief would practically decree it and filial love would perpetuate the practice after the belief no longer existed in its old form. As long as the old belief continued the cases of renamings of the child's great grandparent would undoubtedly dominate, but as soon as it ceased to be believed that reincarnation of the departed in the child took place with the bestowal of the name of the deceased, the possibilities for new forms of the practice were at once at hand. (Flom, p. 249, 251). Several scholars have commented on this, seeing it as a belief in transmigration of the soul among the Old Norse: According to the pagan view the name was a part of the personality, or rather the name in some mysterious way represented the spiritual and intellectual element of the individual for whom it stood. After death the soul went with the name and the individual was restored to new life with the name. But the soul and consequently the name signified not only renewed life in a new body, but a continuation of the whole siritual personality of the departed in the new body. The new-born child so named would with the name become endowed with the character and the personal qualities of the departed. (Flom, p. 252). There seem to have been definitite patterns in selecting which deceased relative's name would be used for a newborn. Scholars have analyzed historical records to determine these patterns, and in fact the practice has continued, though not as strictly, through the present day. The hierarchy of choosing a name was as follows: Man opkalder altid afdøde Slægtninge, helst direkte Forfædre, men ogsaa Faders eller Moders eller Farfaders eller Morfaders broder of Söstre: Naar en nær Slægtning dör kort för et Barns Födsel, helst under Svangerskabet, faar Barnet altid den Afdödes Navn; En Sön födt efter Faderen dör faar altid Faderens Navn; Naar den Opkaldte har et almindeligt Navn opkaldes Barnet med Tilnavnet.

A child was always named after a dead family member, ideally a direct forefather, but also paternal or maternal aunts or uncles, great-aunts, or great-uncles. When a close relative dies shortly before the birth of a child, particularly while the child is in utero, the child is always given the name of the deceased. A son born after the father dies is always given the name of the father. When the person-being-named-after has a common name, the child is given the person-being-named-after's nickname (byname) [as well as the personal name]. (Ström, quoted by Flom, pp. 248-249. Special thanks to Mistress Brynhildr jarla Kormáksdóttir for assistance with the translation.)===Other Considerations in Name-Giving=== Aside from the practice of naming children after deceased relatives, the two major principles of Germanic name-giving also influenced how children were named.

Alliteration: The first principle was alliteration, in which the same sound at the beginning of one name is repeated in another, for example: Sometimes the names went from generation to generation in an alliterating series (Agni, Alrek, Yngvi, Iôrund, Aun, Egil, Óttar, Adils, Eystein, Yngvar, önund, Ingiald, Olaf were successive kings of the Uppsala dynasty, all with names beginning with a vowel) (Viking Achievement p. 115). Variation: The second principle was variation, the practice of forming a new name so that it differs from that of others in the family by changing one element in the name: sometimes names were chosen on the so-called "variation" principle -- a ninth-century Norwegian Végeirr had sons Vébiôrn, Vésteinn, Véþormr, Vémundr, Végestr and more children with names of the same kind. (Viking Achievement p. 115). When variation was used, the childrens' names often contained one of the same name-elements found in the parents' names (Sørensen, "Personal Names", p. 499). Variation was not limited to keeping the first syllable unchanged: family names might use variation by changing the first name element in the various names while keeping the second name element the same, for example: Abiôrn, Finnbiôrn, Gunnbiôrn, Hallbiôrn, Ketilbiôrn.

The use of variation and alliteration appear to be the oldest Germanic practice. The custom of naming a newborn after a deceased relative displaced the older custom sometime during the 9th and 10th centuries.

Single-Element Names vs. Compound Names
The basic Old Norse name was usually composed of two name elements, although some names had only one element. Some good examples of single-element names might include: Two-element names are combinations of single-elements. These single elements may sometimes be found standing alone as a single-element name, but the majority are found only in compound names. For instance: It is crucial to understand that one cannot simply "mix-and-match" with random name-elements. Some name elements are only found in the first position and never in the second, while others occur only in the second element and never the first. And in some cases certain name elements were used only with a limited set of other name elements in compound names. As Geirr Bassi notes: Not all simple names occur in compounds; some may be used only as the first or the second element while some occur in both positions. If it were not for this problem of limited constructability, it would suffice to supply a list of 'name elements' from which compound names could be constructed at will. But a great number of potential compounds constructable from popular elements do not show up anywhere in the extensive documentation. To cite an example, the simple name Hallr (feminine: Halla) is documented as the first element of many compounds: (masculine) Hallbiôrn, Halldór, Hallfreðr, Hallgeirr, Hallgrímr, Hallkell, Hallormr, Hallsteinn, Hallvarðr, (feminine) Hallbera, Hallbjôrg, Halldís, Halldóra, Hallfríðr, Hallgerðr, Hallkatla, Hallveig, Hallvôr, but it is not attested in compounds with the popular second components (masculine) -brandr, -fiðr, -finnr, -gautr, -gestr, - móðr, -oddr, -ólfr, -valdr, or (feminine) -finna, -gríma, -hildr, -ný, -unn, etc., although all such compounds are certainly theoretically possible. (The Old Norse Name, p. 5) There are also some elements which are only found in male names, while others are found exclusively in female names. In the first case, it may be that we are just missing women's names containing elements that are well-documented in men's names, since we have many fewer women's names surviving from this period than men's names. Some examples of name elements which are exclusive to women's names are: -dís, -veig, -ný.

Names and Luck
In Hauksbók it is mentioned that it was the practice to name children after the gods (Goð-, "god"; Þór-, "Thórr"; Frey-, "Freyr"; Regin-, "power, the gods"; Ás-, "god") and that: ...menn hôfdu mjôk þá tvau nôfn, þótti þat likast til langlifis ok heilla, þótt nokkurir fyrirmælti þeim við goðin, þá mundi þat ekki saka, eí þeir ætti eitt nafn... Thus it was thought that a compound name composed of two name-elements gave luck and long life, especially those compounded with the names of gods, and that people who had such compound names would have langlifis ok heilla, "long life and health", and it was also thought that if someone cursed a person by calling on the Old Norse gods that it would not hurt the person who was a namesake of the god invoked in the curse (Cleasby-Vigfusson, pp. 207-208 s.v. goð).

Name Meanings
Even a brief look through a list of Old Norse names reveals that the majority contain one or more name-elements which are identical to ordinary nouns and adjectives in Old Norse. While certainly people were aware of the meanings of these words which continued being used in the everyday language, some name-elements are derived from archaic words which were present in the most ancient Germanic roots of Old Norse, but which were no longer commonly in use. Modern philologists make a study of these names and attempt to reconstruct the ancient forms based on well-known rules which describe the way human languages change over time.

Even in cases where name meanings were clearly understood in a contemporary sense, the meaning of the name was not important in choosing a name for a child. As has already been discussed, the use of a family name belonging to an ancestor was the most important factor for the Viking Age practice of naming.

In the lists of names available through the links above. I have provided etymological information wherever possible, for several reasons. While the meanings of the names would not have influenced which name a Viking Age child was given, modern parents write and ask about names to give to their children today, medieval recreationists using these names for their Viking Age personas care about the meanings of names, and so forth. Just recall that a Viking hearing someone introduced as Biörn probably didn't immediately think of a bear, any more than a modern person being introduced to a man named Forrest thinks of trees, or hearing of a person named Christie assumes that they are Christian. With a little thought certainly these meanings become apparent, and even today become the grist for puns, joke, nicknames or compliments -- but what we hear first when we hear a name is a "name word" and not the meaning underlying it.

However, while name meanings would not have been the consideration in naming a child, still they had their place, even in the Viking Age. As Mistress Brynhildr jarla Kormáksdóttir notes: ... a very good portion of Old Norse names are [everyday nouns in the everyday language of the Vikings]: Unnr (wave), Auðr (treasure), Refr (fox), Biörn (bear), Drífa (snowdrift), Mörd (weasel), Úlfr (wolf), Geirr (spear), Steinn (rock), Hrafn (raven), Óspakr (Not Wise), Ófeigr (Not Cowardly), Ljótr (Ugly) -- you know the list. Compounds take a bit more thinking ("Þórólfr" = Thor + wolf; "Vigdís" = battle + goddess), but you can't tell me they weren't thinking... The Celtic names (Niál, Kormák, Dufthak, Kiallak, Melkof &c.) are the only batch I can think of where the meaning wouldn't have been absolutely patent.

Okay, I guess you can argue that one can know the meaning of a name and still not think about it: witness all the Junes and Aprils and Dawns and Autumns and Summers not born at the designated time, or the Noels and Natalies not born at Christmas... but I have a hard time believing Icelanders didn't twig to the connection most of the time. Why else would they call Cat Stevens "Högni Stefánsson" (besides to be funny)? The character Ref in Gísla saga, almost certainly not a historical personage, is definitely sly as a fox... coincidence? I think not. (Personal correspondence dated 20 March 2001)===Surnames: Patronymics and Matronymics=== The Vikings did not use surnames as we understand them. They followed the system of using patronymics (or rarely matronymics) and this system is still in use in Iceland today. A patronymic is simply a name that means Son-of-{father's name} or Daughter-of-{father's name}. In Old Norse, we see names such as Skallagrimson (son of Skallagrim), Hakonardottir (daughter of Hakon).

Patronymics (or matronymics) must follow the ordinary rules of Old Norse grammar. In modern English, when we want to indicate a possessive (sometimes also known as the genitive case of the noun) we do so by adding an ending (the possessive of John is John's) or else we use a phrase that indicates the possessive (of John). So in modern English, when we want to indicate a son belonging to John, we say John's son or the son of John

In Old Norse, the possessive is indicated by a change in the ending of the word. Without teaching an entire course on Old Norse here, I will provide below some basic rules controlling the formation of Old Norse possessives for use in patronymics and matronymics, from Geirr bassi Haraldsson's The Old Norse Name: Most other men's names end in terminal -R, which normally forms the genitive by adding -s: Certain men's names form their genitive in -ar. Most of these are names ending in -dr, but others are included:

Mens' names that end in -biörn ("bear") or -örn ("eagle") change form slightly in the genitive, becoming -biarnar and -arnar.

Names ending in -maðr have the genitive form -manns.

Names ending in -ss do not change in the genitive, but in the compound patronymic, one of the "s" is dropped, thus Vigfúss, Vigfússon.

Matronymics: While people did occasionally bear matronymics ({Mother's-name}'s-son) it was extremely uncommon. I can document only a handful of men with matronymics. There were a total of only 34 women in Iceland whose sons are shown by the historical records to have borne their mother's name as a matronymic, and most of these women lived in the northern and western districts of Iceland (Barði Guðmundsson. The Origin of the Icelanders. trans. Lee M. Hollander. Lincoln: Univ of Nebraska Press. 1967. Library of Congress Catalog Card #66-19265. pp. 26-31). Some of these men with matronymics were court skalds:

Some of the mothers whose names were used in matronymics were:

Nicknames and Short-form Names
In addition, people were sometimes called by heiti, uppnefi, or viðrnefni (bynames or nicknames). These nicknames were rarely, if ever, used by the person themselves, and almost never used to the person's face. You were tagged by your friends (or enemies) with a byname. This becomes painfully obvious when you look at the historical bynames we have recorded. they are invariably descriptive, and mostly derogatory in some way, though a few denote desireable traits the person was known for.

Bynames can be divided roughly into eight categories: (1) physical characteristics, (2) habits, (3) temperament, (4) occupation, (5) place of origin, (6) biographical, (7) inherited bynames, and (8) other. Studies of the bynames of modern Icelanders seem to indicate that the first two types of byname are the most prevalent.

Perhaps eventually I will compile a list of Norse bynames to accompany this article, however at the present time I am concentrating on further enriching the personal name information. In the meantime, perhaps the best collection of nick-names in Old Norse is to be found in Geirr Bassi Haraldsson's The Old Norse Name. Another source is in the glossaries and appendices of Viking Age literature such as the sagas.

In addition to bynames people also used short forms of longer names, just as we use Bobby for Robert or Liz for Elizabeth today. Several of these short forms are reported in the lists of names available through the links above.

Sometimes adults were given a nickname in a formal ceremony, for example if the new name was the result of some special event or feat of skill or prowess. In such a case, the newly-nick-named person would be given gifts, just as newborns were gifted when they received their name after birth.

Ceremonies Involved in Name-Giving
Naming is an important rite of incorporation in many cultures, and certainly was so among the Norse. Not all children were raised: children with defects or which the family could not afford to rear were exposed. The fate of a new-born generally was the responsibility of the father, or the male head of household if the father was not available. If it was decided to rear the child, then the baby was washed, dressed, and formally named. The ceremony of naming was certainly a rite of incorporation, for once the child had been named exposing it thereafter counted in the laws as murder. The giving of the name conferred upon the child the status of a member of the family and any rights of inheritance. In antiquity, it is assumed that placing the child at the breast to suckle would have been the act which signified the child was to be reared, not the naming. However, by the Viking Age, the ceremony of naming took the place of this older ceremony.

Naming was done by a practice called ausa vatni, "to pour water over". The ceremony began with the lifting of the child from the floor (where, presumably, it had been laid for the father's inspection and evaluation of its fitness to be raised) and placed in the father's arms (borit ar foður sinum). This rite was not the same as Christian baptism, which is usually termed skirn or "purification" in Old Norse after the advent of Christianity in the North. Once in the father's arms, a sign recalling the Hammer of the god Þórr was made over the child, probably invoking the protection of the god who was considered Mankind's Warder as well as hallowing the child and the ceremony. Another vital element in the name-giving ceremony was the giving of a gift to the child: children received a name-gift from friends and relatives of the family, and also another gift called a "tooth-gift" when the baby cut its first tooth.

A romantic depiction of name-giving. "I own this baby for my son. He shall be called Harald". (adapted from: Jennie Hall. Viking Tales. Chicago: Rand McNally. 1902)

The sagas include several mentions of this naming ceremony. For example in Egils saga Skallagrímssonar: Skalla-Grímr og þau Bera áttu börn mjög mörg, og var það fyrst, að öll önduðust; þá gátu þau son, og var vatni ausinn og hét Þórólfr.

Skallagrím and Bera had many children but all the older ones died in infancy. Then they had a son. They sprinkled him with water and called him Þórólfr. (Egils saga Skallagrímssonar, chapter 31) Another example can be seen in Eyrbyggja saga: Þórsteinn þorskabítur átti son er kallaður var Börkr digri. En sumar það er Þórsteinn var hálfþrítugur fæddi Þóra sveinbarn og var Grímur nefndur er vatni var ausinn. Þann svein gaf Þórsteinn Þór og kvað vera skyldu hofgoða og kallar hann Þórgrím.

Þórsteinn Cod-Biter had a son called Börkr the Stout. Then in the summer when Þórsteinn was twenty-five years old, Þóra gave birth to another son, who was sprinkled with water and given the name Grímr. Þórsteinn dedicated this boy to Þórr, calling him Þórgrímr, and said he should become a temple priest. (Eyrbyggja saga, chapter 11) This rite was also used for girl-children: Þóra ól barn um sumarið, og var það mær; var hún vatni ausin og nafn gefið og hét Ásgerðr.

In the summer Þóra gave birth to a girl, who was sprinkled with water and given the name Ásgerðr. (Egils saga Skallagrímssonar, chapter 35)